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Consisting of three articles and a framework manuscript, this cumulative dissertation deals with sustainable compensation of chief executive officer (CEO) with a focus on climate-related aspects. Against the backdrop of the European action for sustainability and the EU Green Deal, the dissertation pays special attention to the consideration of climate-related aspects of corporate performance in CEO compensation. In this context, sustainable compensation is characterized by the consideration of long-term interests and sustainability of the company as well as by the inclusion of financial and non-financial aspects of environmental, social and governance performance (ESG) in compensation agreements. While this novel instrument of corporate governance aims to incentivize the implementation of sustainability-oriented corporate strategy, it is particularly important to unfold this incentive effect at the individual CEO level in view of their managerial discretion. The framework manuscript discusses the research objectives, the regulatory and theoretical background, the results of the dissertation and their implications in the context of regulation, research, and business practice. The essence of the dissertation are the three articles. The first article, "Determinants and effects of sustainable CEO compensation: a structured literature review of empirical evidence," examines the current state of empirical research based on 37 articles that were published between 1992 and 2018. Based on a multidimensional research framework, the structured literature review compiles past research findings, identifies contentual and methodological foci in the research area, and derives questions for future research. The second article, "Mapping the determinants of carbon-related CEO compensation: a multidimensional approach," addresses the topic from a conceptual perspective. Taking the existing work as a starting point, a conceptual framework is derived, which organizes the determinants of carbon-related CEO compensation at societal, organizational, group and individual levels of analysis. On this basis, eight propositions are presented that seek to distinguish between the determinants which support and challenge the implementation of carbon-related CEO compensation. The third article, "Climate change policies and carbon-related CEO compensation systems: an exploratory study of European companies," focuses on the use of CO2-oriented performance indicators in CEO compensation. The empirical-qualitative study analyzes corporate disclosure of the 65 largest companies in the EU for the years 2018 and 2019. The study addresses the use of CO2-oriented performance indicators in corporate strategy and CEO compensation. It also examines which compensation components are determined with the help of CO2-oriented performance indicators, which type of performance indicators are used, and whether CO2-intensive and less CO2-intensive companies differ in this regard.
The issue under investigation in this study is to explore the drivers and suggest methods for environmental managers to integrate environmental issues in the top management strategic decision-making. In order to make the reading easy the whole study has been written following the principle of providing the minimum information to clarify the point under discussion, no more, no less. The conclusions, the analysis, the implications and the limitations are discussed on a chapter by chapter basis, making it easier for the reader to remember the issue under discussion. The closing chapter brings together the conclusions of each chapter of the study. The study is divided into two parts. Part I: Planning describes the planning and preparation for the research and consists of the following chapters: Chapter 1 provides an overview of the interest, relevance and importance of this study. Also it proposes, through the introduction of the relevant literature, an exact wording for the research problem and a framework for evaluating the effectiveness of each process step. Chapters 2 and 3 describe and justify the chosen framework that prompts managers during interviewing and organises the resulting contents in a way that will support effective decision making. This is the end of the planning part of the study and we now move into the action part where the case studies are explained in full. Part II: Intervention comprises the following chapters: Chapter 4 is where the action begins, the first phase of the process. This chapter discusses the reasons selection and participation in the research and the process for choosing a business unit. Chapter 5 details, justifies and discusses the choices of who to interview. It outlines how the interviews were conducted and summarises the resulting contents. In Chapter 6 the general issue of who to involve in interviews is explored further for the specific case of the environmental manager. The main objective is to discuss whether and why the environmental manager had more/less/different ideas from the rest of the management team. Chapter 7 deals with the first time that the people meet as a group. For this process step the choices were about how to display and generate discussion on the contents gathered during the interviews. Chapter 8 focuses on the environmental manager’s contribution to the objective Fine-tuning discussion. Chapter 9 describes the Indicator Building process and how this may be relevant for the environmental manager. Concluding Remarks wraps up the results and discusses the need for extending this research further.
Der Wandel des Energiesystems ist eine der zentralen Nachhaltigkeitstransformationen, denen sich die Forschung widmet. Wie für die Transition-Forschung verschiedenlich festgestellt, besteht allerdings eine gewisse Lücke bei der Frage, wie Nachhaltigkeitstransformationen organisiert und finanziert werden. Insbesondere fehlt es erstens an einer Ausdifferenzierung und vertieften Analyse einzelner institutionell-organisatorischer Lösungen und zweitens an einer Darstellung im Zusammenhang der komplexen sozio-ökologisch-technischen Systeme, in die konkrete Organisationslösungen für eine nachhaltige Energieversorgung eingebunden sind. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden mit genossenschaftlichen Ansätzen, also Organisationslösungen mit (Teil-)Eigentum der Bürgerinnen und Bürger an den Anlagen, spezifische hybride finanzielle Arrangements im Energiesektor in den Fokus gerückt. Dem institutionenanalytischen Ansatz der Bloomington School folgend wird im Rahmenpapier und insgesamt sechs Fachartikeln der Frage nachgegangen, welche Formen genossenschaftlicher Ansätze im Global Norden und Globalen Süden anzutreffen sind und welche Rolle diesen in den Transformationsprozessen des jeweiligen Energiesystems zukommt. Für die Analyse wird auf das Social-Ecological Systems Framework zurückgegriffen, das für die einzelnen Untersuchungen modifiziert bzw. konkretisiert wird. Im Einzelnen wird in den Fachartikeln ein Überblick über die Erkenntnisse zu genossenschaftlichen Ansätzen im Globalen Süden gegeben, auf der Makroebene den wechselnden politischen Prozessen von Koordination und contestation nachgegangen, auf der Mesoebene die Entwicklungen von Windenergiegenossenschaften in Belgien, Dänemark, Deutschland und dem Vereinigten Königreich vergleichend analysiert, der Zusammenhang von Finanz- und Energiesystem untersucht und für diesen Kontext Gerechtigkeitsnormen konkretisiert und schließlich auf der Mikroebene die Inklusivität von Bürgerenergieinitiativen näher betrachtet und Unterschiede in den Investitionsmotiven verschiedener Bürgerenergieakteure herausgearbeitet.
The academic literature holds high expectations of crowdfunding to foster sustainable development by closing the funding gap for sustainable entrepreneurs. In particular, crowdfunding is considered a promising instrument for transforming existing socio-technical regimes by financing radical innovations of such entrepreneurs. However, this potential has not yet been fully explored. Large knowledge gaps exist especially in the area of investment-based crowdfunding. Therefore, this dissertation addresses the overarching research question of how sustainable entrepreneurs can exploit the full potential of investment-based crowdfunding to develop from niche operators to actors in the socio-technical regime. Five journal articles and one book chapter are included in this PhD project, which use a wide range of quantitative methodologies. In the framework paper, the findings are conceptually evaluated on a meta-level by applying the multi-level perspective. The key insights can be assigned to four categories, including the financing and marketing function, the target group, and the project presentation. The analysis shows that investment-based crowdfunding is suitable to equally fund and market the business ideas of environmental entrepreneurs, since the quest for entering the mass market is highest for such ventures. In contrast, purely social entrepreneurs tend to conduct crowdfunding projects on a smaller scale and probably aim to stay in the niche. Nevertheless, profit-oriented social entrepreneurs are still encouraged to use investment-based crowdfunding for funding and marketing purposes. The prominent display of environmental effects (e.g. the amount of compensated greenhouse gases) and financial incentives (e.g. high interest rates) has a high impact on the investment decision of individuals on investment-based crowdfunding platforms. The findings also suggest that the typical supporter of sustainability-oriented crowdfunding projects is younger than 50 years, has achieved at least a university degree and holds low levels of self-enhancement and conservative values. The case of fairafric is used as a best practice example to demonstrate how crowdfunding can be a stepping stone for sustainability-oriented niche actors to enter the mass market. The fair-trade and organic chocolate manufacturer has undergone six crowdfunding campaigns which enabled it to grow and build a strong community of supporters. The outcomes of this dissertation clarify how sustainable entrepreneurs can unleash the potential of investment-based crowdfunding for financing and marketing purposes.
In this dissertation, I focus on the link between (internal) corporate governance structures and processes and firms financial reporting quality. Specifically, the dissertation aims to provide insights into the following general research question: What is the effect of different corporate governance stakeholders on the financial reporting quality of a firm? I provide insights into this question through three different articles. While Chapter 2 and 3 of this dissertation are concerned with company owners as one, albeit diverse, group of stakeholders, Chapter 4 focuses on managers and their ability to influence firm outcomes. The paper Do Family Firms Engage in Less Earnings Management? A Meta- Analysis, which is co-authored with Tim Hasso and Dominik Wagner, explores the relationship between family firm status and earnings management and synthesizes and explains previous research findings with the help of meta-analytic methods that are still uncommon in financial accounting research. We find a negative relationship between family firms and earnings management on average across 37 primary studies (and 305 effect sizes in total). Furthermore, we show that the considerable variation in size and direction of primary effect sizes can be explained by researchers choice of study design, earnings management proxy and different institutional settings. The paper Do Institutional Owners Deter Earnings Management? A Meta- Analysis, which is co-authored with Tim Hasso, explores institutional owners as a different set of shareholders and their impact on financial reporting quality. The study enables us to compare the results against the backdrop of the previous chapter and to see different rationales that managers in institutionally-owned companies might have to engage in earnings management. Here, we study 511 effect sizes from a total of 87 primary studies and find that the average effect is slightly negative, meaning institutional owners on average can get more transparent earnings figures from the companies they invest in. Similar to the work we did on family firms, we find considerable heterogeneity between results from primary studies. Specifically, our multivariate meta-regression models can explain 26 percent of the variability in effect sizes, mainly attributable to study design choices, such as how scholars measure the relevant constructs of ownership and earnings management. Conversely, this also indicates that across the 87 primary studies looking at the link between institutional ownership and earnings management, 74 percent of heterogeneity in effect sizes is still not explained. The single-author paper The Fish Rots From the Head Down: Managerial Personality and Financial Accounting Manipulation is concerned with managers - the second main stakeholder in corporate governance - and how managerial personality drives the propensity to engage in fraudulent accounting activities. I use a primary sample of 956 professionals, who work in accounting and finance departments, and ask them to rate their immediate superior on dark triad personality traits, as well as common actions taken by management to obscure and manipulate earnings figures. I find that managers with high ratings for dark triad personality traits engage to a greater extent in fraudulent accounting practices, than managers scoring low on the dark triad scale. Moreover, I can show that traditional risk management mechanisms, like internal audit departments, are only partially effective. Specifically, I find that only internal audit departments that are fully staffed by external personnel can curb the adverse effect of dark triad managers on financial reporting quality. This suggests that managers with dark personalities can take advantage of mixed or entirely in-house internal audit departments. Overall, this dissertation contributes significantly to both literature streams of corporate governance and financial reporting quality. My work can explain a significant degree of heterogeneity in previous findings on the link between different kinds of ownership and earnings management. Further, it stresses that the considerable variation in current findings is not mainly attributable to cross-country differences, as previously suggested, but in no small part attributable to study design features. Both meta-analysis papers are among the first articles that apply advanced metaregression methods in the financial accounting literature. Thus, contrary to previous methods of research synthesis meta-analyses are uniquely able to draw systematic, quantitative and replicate conclusions from a body of academic research. Especially for large, mature literature strands taking stock of all findings on a specific relationship is valuable, as research rarely progresses one paper at a time. Condensing and differentiating cumulative research via meta-analysis is thus a valuable contribution to the field and can be a basis for further theory development and improvements in empirical study designs. Finally, I can provide additional evidence on current research linking executive personality traits and financial reporting practices. Asking practitioners directly about their assessment of managerial personality and the frequency of specific fraudulent actions helped to show the critical role of executive personality and complements recent archival and experimental findings. The survey design also enables me to study so far undetected fraud, which is almost impossible to examine with experimental or archival data and thus a significant contribution to existing literature. Finding links between managerial personality, internal controls and reporting quality contributes to the literature further, as it shows previously unhypothesized relationships that can serve as a basis for future research on the effectiveness of internal audit functions in preventing fraud given different managerial personality traits.
