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Betriebliche Arbeitnehmermitbestimmung stellt Gegenstand zahlreicher Studien dar. Unternehmerische Mitbestimmung konnte sich dagegen als Themenschwerpunkt in der ökonomischen Diskussion bisher nicht ausreichend durchsetzen, weshalb umfangreicher Forschungsbedarf angemerkt wird. Mit der vorliegenden Dissertation wird dieser Aufforderung in fünf Papieren nachgekommen. Dabei wird sich ausschließlich auf die Drittelmitbestimmung in GmbHs des westdeutschen Dienstleistungssektors konzentriert. In dem Papier „Die Aufsichtsratslücke im Dienstleistungssektor. Ausmaß und Bestimmungsgründe“ wird eine Analyse der Verbreitung der Drittelmitbestimmung im westdeutschen Dienstleistungssektor durchgeführt. Während im Industriebereich die Gewährung von Mitbestimmungsrechten äußerst verbreitet war, stellt sich die Frage, ob diese Tatsache auch für den Dienstleistungssektor zutrifft. Letzterer zeichnet sich in Deutschland, im Gegensatz zum verarbeitenden Gewerbe, durch kontinuierliches Wachstum aus. Die Arbeit demonstriert, dass - entgegen den rechtskräftigen Regelungen- weniger als die Hälfte aller GmbHs im westdeutschen Dienstleistungssektor mit 500 bis 2000 Beschäftigten einen Aufsichtsrat und folglich Mitbestimmung auf Unternehmensebene aufweisen. Zur Erklärung der ermittelten Aufsichtsratslücke wird in dem Papier eine ökonometrische Analyse potenzieller Bestimmungsgründe für das verbreitete Fehlen durchgeführt. Diese demonstriert, dass sich sowohl die Organisationsform des Hauptgesellschafters als auch die Beschäftigtenzahl auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit des Bestehens eines Aufsichtsrates auswirken. Das Unternehmensalter spielt als Einflussgröße hingegen keine wichtige Rolle. Das Papier wurde in der Zeitschrift für Industrielle Beziehungen Ausgabe 04/2009 veröffentlicht. Auf eine Replik, die mit dem Artikel veröffentlicht worden ist, wurde in der ersten Ausgabe der Zeitschrift Industrielle Beziehungen 2010 entsprechend mit einer Replik geantwortet (siehe Kapitel 3). Um die resultierenden Ergebnisse besser einordnen zu können, wurden für das zweite Papier „Recht und Realität von Mitbestimmung im westdeutschen Dienstleistungssektor: 11 Fallstudien“ Interviews durchgeführt. Ziel war es insbesondere, die im ersten Papier herausgearbeiteten Bestimmungsgründe für das verbreitete Nicht-Vorhandensein von Aufsichtsräten zu überprüfen. In 11 Befragungen in verschiedenen Regionen Deutschlands erklären Vertreter der Arbeitgeber- und Arbeitnehmerseite, weshalb in ihrem Unternehmen kein Aufsichtsrat existiert. Außerdem wird die Stellung des Betriebsrates sowie die Bedeutung von Mitbestimmung im Allgemeinen erläutert. Die Fallstudien demonstrieren, dass Arbeitgeber und Belegschaft die Bildung von Betriebsräten in der Regel begrüßen. Ein Aufsichtsrat wird hingegen als überflüssig erachtet. Insgesamt zeigt die Analyse, dass Arbeitnehmermitbestimmung auf Abteilungsebene mehr Bedeutung beigemessen wird als in den gesetzlich vorgeschriebenen Institutionen. In dem Papier „The Economic Consequences of one-third Co-determination in German Supervisory Boards: First Evidence for the Service Sector from a New Source of Enterprise Data“ werden mögliche ökonomische Auswirkungen des Drittelbeteiligungsgesetzes analysiert. Unternehmen mit und ohne Aufsichtsräte werden im Hinblick auf ihren Erfolg (Profitabilität und Value added per employee) verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Unternehmen mit Aufsichtsrat im Schnitt eine höhere Produktivität aufweisen. Mögliche Einflüsse auf die Rentabilität einer Unternehmung erweisen sich als nicht signifikant. Schließlich geht es in dem fünften Papier „One-third Co-determination in German Supervisory Boards and its Economic Consequences. New Evidence for Employment“ um potenzielle Auswirkungen unternehmerischer Mitbestimmung auf die Beschäftigungsentwicklung. Der Aufsatz ist erst der zweite in der Mitbestimmungsforschung, der sich dieser Thematik widmet. In einem Regressionsmodell wird ermittelt, dass die Existenz eines Aufsichtsrates nicht signifikant mit dem Beschäftigungsniveau korreliert. Die Besonderheit des Forschungsdesigns besteht zunächst darin, dass erstmals Unternehmen gleicher Größenordnung und gleicher Branche, die sich insbesondere durch die Existenz eines Aufsichtsrates unterscheiden, in Hinblick auf ihre wirtschaftliche Performanz verglichen werden können. Zusätzlich stellt die Verwendung eines kombinierten Datensatzes ein Charakteristikum der vorliegenden Arbeit dar. Im Rahmen des Dissertationsvorhabens werden Mikrodaten aus Erhebungen der amtlichen Statistik mit Daten aus externen Quellen verknüpft. Grund dafür ist, dass die Erhebungen der amtlichen Statistik keine Informationen über das Vorhandensein eines Aufsichtsrates enthalten. Diese Informationen sowie die Angaben über die Eigentümerstruktur wurden aus einer kommerziellen Datenbank der Firma Hoppenstedt entnommen und im Falle unvollständiger Angaben durch eigene Recherchen ergänzt. Die Verknüpfung findet über einen sowohl in den Mikrodaten der amtlichen Statistik als auch in dem selbständig aufgebauten Datensatz enthaltenen Schlüssel statt, den Angaben zu Registergericht und Handelsregister-Nummer.
This dissertation includes an introduction and five empirical papers focusing on the educational and career decision-making process of individuals in Germany. The five papers embrace different determinants of educational and career decisions including school performance, social background, leisure activities as well as professional expectations, and contribute to the existing literature in this research area. Chapter 2 of this dissertation begins by analysing the nexus between students’ time allocation and school performance in terms of grades and satisfaction with their own performance in mathematics, the German language and a first foreign language, as well as overall achievement. This chapter looks at the heterogeneity of three important extracurricular activities: student jobs, sports and participation in music. Moreover, the heterogeneity of each activity is addressed by accounting for different types of the particular activity and differences in the number of years the activity has been pursued. For this purpose, data from the German SOEP, as a representative panel survey of private households and people in Germany, in particular cross-sectional survey data of 3388 students who are about 17 years old and enrolled in a German secondary school, were used. The main findings are that having a job as a student is negatively correlated with school performance, whereas participation in sports and music is positively correlated. However, the results reveal heterogeneity in each activity, especially with respect to intensity. Chapter 3 addresses the concrete post-school decision of school students, in particular whether to study or to enter the German VET system (Vocational Education and Training). It focuses on individual risk preferences and the social background of individuals and how these determinants affect the ultimate decision to enrol in university or to start an apprenticeship given the same level of qualification. For the empirical approach data from the German SOEP were used, in particular information on individuals' educational decisions between 2007 and 2013. The results indicate that (i) individual risk preferences do not have an overall effect on the real transition; (ii) privileged individuals are more likely to take up higher education; and (iii) compared to highly educated parents, parents without an academic background are less likely to guide their children into tertiary education, regardless of how much they support their children with their school work. Chapter 4 deals with the reconsideration of educational decisions in terms of early contract cancellations in VET. In particular, the effects of a second job on the intention to cancel a VET contract early are analysed for apprentices in Germany. For the empirical approach the representative German firm-level study "BIBB Survey Vocational Training from the Trainee's Point of View 2008", conducted by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), is used. The survey contains 5901 apprentices that were interviewed during their second year of apprenticeship (205 schools, 340 classes, and 15 common occupations). Furthermore, it includes the design, procedures, basic conditions, and quality criteria of apprenticeships. The applied probit regressions show a higher intention to quit if apprentices require a secondary job to cover their living costs. In Chapter 5, new data on 191 apprentices from a vocational school, located in a northern German federal state, are used to validate the empirical results of Chapter 4. This chapter presents new insights into secondary-job-related burdens during apprenticeship. Due to limitations in the data, the applied empirical approach in Chapter 4 lacks to analyse how holding multiple jobs increases the intention to leave an apprenticeship early. Therefore, Chapter 5 includes the investigations of burdens related to the second job. The results indicate a lower intention to quit the apprenticeship if an apprentice holds a second job to cover living costs. However, secondary jobs are linked to lower quality of training, which, on the other hand, increases the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. Furthermore, the probability of secondary-job-related burdens increases with the number of working hours. Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by investigating subjective determinants of early contract cancellations in VET. It examines ten questions on what apprentices want to achieve and how unfulfilled expectations affect the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. The findings of this investigation contributes to the existing research on early contract cancellation. The questions considered include information on the performance, personal development, career development and prospects or position in society and their meaning to apprentices. For the research approach, the "BIBB Survey Vocational Training from the Trainee's Point of View 2008" is considered again. The probit and ordered probit regressions applied show significant effects of job characteristics that represent job security. The expectation of being retained after an apprenticeship and the encouragement to consistently train further decrease the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. Furthermore, women appear to be more affected by job security signals than men, but they also sort more often into occupations with lower retention probabilities. Consequently, this result may be an indication of occupational segregation rather than a sign of differences between sexes.
Against the background of recent economic attempts to explain individual economic decisions by structural and institutional factors, this thesis examined to what extent cultural norms exhibit quantitatively important explanatory power for individual economic outcomes, namely individual’s savings and working choices. While an extensive literature deals with the relation between culture and aggregate economic outcomes, those results obtained may reveal distorted cultural effects due to unobserved omitted variables at the country level. Thus, for the purpose of this thesis, four empirical studies were conducted based on individual and household level data for the USA and Germany, respectively. Due to difficulties in defining a coherent concept of culture, Chapters 2 to 4 use individual religiosity, as measured by one’s religious affiliation and religious involvement, as a proxy for culture. Using individual survey data for the USA, namely the PSID, for the years 2003 to 2009, the aim of Chapter 2 was, firstly, to analyze the extent to which religious beliefs and religious commitment are associated with distinct individual savings behavior as a basis for culture-induced heterogeneity in aggregate economic outcomes. One’s religiosity was found in the cross-sectional analysis to be a robust determinant of individual savings choices, even once I control for differences in individual characteristics. To identify the causal effect of religion on individual savings choices, secondly, the results from the multivariate analysis were verified by using the longitudinal structure of the PSID and by an instrumental variable approach, where own individual religious belief were instrumented with the share of one’s religious tradition in the region of ancestry. Neither of these approaches was able to replicate the positive relation between religious affiliation and savings behavior found in the cross-sectional analysis Although the estimates are subject to inefficiencies due to data limitations, this paper mainly sheds light on the endogeneity bias inherent in the relation between cultural factors and economic outcomes. However, taking actively part in religious activities was found to affect the amount saved positively. Thus, one may argue that religious traditions impose religious rules and establish social networks that enhance an individual’s ability and willingness to save money. As opposed to the vital religious market in the USA, Chapters 3 and 4 analyzed the relationship between individual religiosity and risk-taking preferences as well as individual financial behavior within Germany. Using German micro-data, namely the GSOEP, for the years 2003 and 2004, while controlling for the overall level of general risk assessment, evidence is provided that different religious affiliations are associated with distinct financial risk taking attitudes as well as with distinct individual propensities to trust strangers, another central determinant of a household’s financial choices. Further, the extent to which religion-induced heterogeneity in risk-taking preferences actually influences investment and trusting decisions of households in Germany was examined. As compared to the results obtained for the relation between religiosity and savings behavior in the USA, the main differences in economic attitudes and behavior in Germany occur between Christian and Non-Christian religions. However, religious networks were found in both countries to be more important for economic outcomes than religious belief. Chapter 5 purposed to replicate epidemiological studies conducted for North America (Fernández, 2007; Fernández and Fogli, 2009; Gevrek et al., 2011) in Germany using a quite smaller sample which were drawn from data provided by the GSOEP for the years 2001 to 2011. Applying probit and Tobit estimation techniques the results contradict the findings obtained by these previous contributions. While cultural norms towards labor market behavior of women, as measured by past female LFP rates in the country of own or parental origin, were found to be negatively associated with labor market outcomes for first-generation immigrant women in Germany, no statistically significant relation was revealed for the second generation. However, in accordance with the findings from Chapters 2 to 4, religiosity, and especially the Islamic belief, was showed to be negatively related to labor market outcomes of both generations.
All of the papers contained in this thesis address the topic of population economics, especially in relation to labor markets. The first chapter, Introduction, gives an overview of the papers discussed in this thesis. In the second chapter, Age and Gender Differences in Job Opportunities, job opportunities for older workers are analyzed. Newly-employed women and men who are older than the age of 55 are more limited in their occupational choices than younger women and men. Different measures of segregation such as the Duncan Index and Hutchens Index show unequal distribution of jobs over age. Older women in particular face the highest segregation. Several years of the IAB Employment Sample are used in the analysis. In the third chapter, Explaining Age and Gender Differences in Employment Rates: A Labor Supply Side Perspective, the labor supply of older individuals is analyzed. The comparison of reservation wages and entry wages shows age- and gender-specific differences. Nonemployed individuals at the age of 55 and older have the highest reservation wages. Reservation wages for females are always higher than those for males. Entry wages increase with age for males, but not for females. Furthermore, the job satisfaction of women decreases with age while satisfaction with leisure tends to increase. This may explain why employment rates for females are lower than for males. The German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) data is used in the paper. In the forth chapter, Somewhere over the Rainbow: Sexual Orientation Discrimination in Germany, sexual orientation-based differences in income are analyzed. Although Germany has an anti-discrimination law that has explicitly prohibited discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation since 2006, there are significant income differences for gay men and lesbian women. While gay men have an income discount of 5 to 6 percent relative to married heterosexual men, lesbian women have an income premium of 9 to 10 percent relative to heterosexual married women. These differences within the gender types can be explained partially by selection into specific occupations and sectors. One wave of the German Mikrozensus data is used in the analysis. The fifth chapter, A Note on Happiness in Eastern Europe, is no more related to Germany, but takes an international position. Estimations on life satisfaction show typical results, such as a u-shaped effect in relation to age. Marriage and a good state of health have positive effects on life satisfaction or utility, while individual unemployment has a negative effect. Several years of the European Values Study (EVS) and the World Value Survey (WSV) are used in the paper. The thesis is finished by a final chapter, Conclusion
This cumulative dissertation embraces four empirical papers addressing socio-economic issues relevant to policy-makers and society as a whole. These papers cover important aspects of human life including health at birth, life satisfaction, unemployment periods and retirement decisions. The analyses are carried out applying advanced econometric methods and are based on data sets consisting of survey data as well as administrative records. The first joint paper investigates the causal impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on neonatal health in Italy in the 2000s combining detailed information on mother's residential location from birth certificates with PM10 concentrations from air pollution monitors. Variation in local weekly rainfall is exploited as an instrumental variable for non-random air pollution exposure. Using quasi-experimental variation in rainfall shocks allows to identify the effect of PM10, ruling out potential bias due to confounder pollutants. The paper estimates the effect of exposure for both the entire pregnancy period and separately for each trimester to test whether the neonatal health effects are driven by pollution exposure during a particular gestation period. This information enhances our understanding of the mechanisms at work and help prevent pregnant mothers from most dangerous exposure periods. Additionally, the effects of prenatal exposure to PM10 are estimated by maternal labor market status and maternal education level to understand how the pollution burden is shared across different population groups. This decomposition allows to identify possible mechanisms through which environmental inequality reinforces the negative impact of early-life exposure to air pollution. This study finds that average PM10 and days with PM10 level above the hazard limit reduce birth weight, gestational age, and measures of overall newborn health. Effects are largest for third trimester exposure and for low-income and less educated mothers. The second joint paper updates previous findings on the total East-West gap in overall life satisfaction and its trend by using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel for the years 1992 to 2013. Additionally, the effects are separately analyzed for men and women as well as for four birth cohorts. The results indicate that reported life satisfaction is, on average, significantly lower in East than in West German federal states and that part of the raw East-West gap is due to differences in household income and unemployment status. The conditional East-West gap decreased in the first years after the German reunification and remained quite stable and sizable since the mid-nineties. The results further indicate that gender differences are small. Finally, the East-West gap is significantly smaller and shows a trend towards convergence for younger birth cohorts. The third joint paper explores the effects of a major reform of unemployment benefits in Germany on the labor market outcomes of individuals with some health impairment. The reform induced a substantial reduction in the potential duration of regular unemployment benefits for older workers. This work analyzes the reform in a wider framework of institutional interactions, which allows to distinguish between its intended and unintended effects. The results based on routine data collected by the German Statutory Pension Insurance and a Difference-in-Differences design provide causal evidence for a significant decrease in the number of days in unemployment benefits and increase in the number of days in employment. However, they also suggest a significant increase in the number of days in unemployment assistance, granted upon exhaustion of unemployment benefits. Transitions to unemployment assistance represent an unintended effect, limiting the success of a policy change that aims to increase labor supply via reductions in the generosity of the unemployment insurance system. The fourth, single-authored paper explores how an increase in the early retirement age affects labor force participation of older workers. The analysis is based on a social security reform in Germany, which raised the early retirement age over several birth cohorts to boost employment of older people and ultimately alleviate the burden on the public pension system. Detailed administrative data from the Federal Employment Agency allow to distinguish between employment and unemployment as well as disability pensions and retirement benefits claims. Using a Regression Kink design in a quasi-experimental framework, the author shows that the raised early retirement age had positive employment effects and negative effects on retirement benefits claims. The results also show that some population groups are more sensitive to a reduction in retirement options and more likely to seek benefits from other government programs. In this respect, the author finds that workers in manufacturing sector respond to the raised early retirement age by claiming benefits from the disability insurance program designed to compensate for reduced earnings capacity due to severe health problems. The treatment heterogeneity analysis further suggests that high-wage workers are more likely to delay exits from employment, which is in line with incentives but might also indicate an increased inequality within the affected birth cohorts induced by the reform. Finally, women seem to rely on alternative sources of income such as retirement benefits for women, or spouse's or partner's income not observed in the data. All things considered, workers did not adjust to the increased early retirement age by substituting early retirement with other government programs but rather responded to the reform in line with the policy intent. At the same time, the findings point to heterogeneous behavioral responses across different population groups. This implies that raising the early retirement age is an effective policy tool to increase employment only among older people who have the real choice to delay employment exits. Therefore, reforms that raise statutory ages should ensure social support for workers only marginally attached to the labor market or not able to work longer due to potential health problems or other circumstances.