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Later life work: individual, job, and organizational factors for retirement timing and work beyond normal retirement age (2022)
Wöhrmann, Anne Marit
The choice to continue working until or even beyond retirement is a function of the interplay of factors on micro, meso, and macro levels. Research within this area has grown significantly over the last years. I contribute to this line of research with the studies conducted within the scope of this cumulative habilitation thesis. More specifically, the aim of the research presented here is to add to the literature on later life work with the investigation of individual (micro level) as well as job and organizational (meso level) factors that have the potential to contribute to prolonged working lives. I was guided by the general research interest on how individual, job, and organizational factors contribute to later life work, and more specifically to retirement timing and work-related activities beyond normal retirement age. My research was directed by the following research questions: (1) What is the work activity potential of older people in Germany and what characterizes different types of later life work potential? (2) Which role do individual psychological factors such as personality, values, and beliefs play in the context of later life work? (3) How do specific job characteristics interact or align with individual psychological factors with regard to later life work? (4) What characterizes a holistic organizational approach to later life work that helps the alignment of the work environment to older workers’ (individual) needs and abilities? Following an introduction, I give an overview on the theoretical framework of my research in Chapter 2 (“Theoretical Background”). I describe the conceptualization of later life work before I go into multilevel antecedents of later life work and present key theoretical approaches to a person-environment fit perspective of later life work. In the following four chapters, I present ten studies corresponding to the ten scientific publications that constitute the basis of the cumulative habilitation thesis. In Chapter 3 (“Later Life Work: Work Activity Potential”) I present research on the extent as well as different types of later life work potential in Germany to describe the context for most of my research. With the two studies presented here (Büsch, Zohr, Brusch, Deller, Schermuly, Stamov-Roßnagel, & Wöhrmann, 2015; Mergenthaler, Wöhrmann, & Staudinger; 2015), I also intend to provide answers to the research question on the later life work potential in Germany and the characteristics of different later life work potential constellations. In Chapter 4 (“Later Life Work: Individual Psychological Factors”) the role of stable as well as malleable individual psychological factors for later life work is explored in two studies (Fasbender, Wöhrmann, Wang, & Klehe, 2019; Wöhrmann, Fasbender, & Deller, 2016). Thus, with the studies presented in this chapter, I contribute to the research question on the role of individual psychological factors in the context of later life work. In Chapter 5 (“Later Life Work: Job Characteristics Corresponding to Older Workers’ Needs and Abilities”) I present three studies exploring the interplay of individual factors and job characteristics for later life work to address the research question on the interaction or alignment of specific job characteristics with individual psychological factors with regard to later life work (Pundt, Wöhrmann, Deller, & Shultz, 2015; Wöhrmann, Brauner, & Michel, 2020; Wöhrmann, Fasbender, & Deller; 2017). Chapter 6 (“Later Life Work: A Holistic Organizational Approach”) reports the development of the Later Life Workplace Index (LLWI) as a multidimensional tool to holistically assess organizational practices and working conditions targeted at the promotion of later life work through the maintenance and enhancement of older employees’ health, work ability, and motivation (Wilckens, Wöhrmann, Adams, Deller, & Finkelstein, 2020; Wilckens, Wöhrmann, Deller, & Wang, 2020; Wöhrmann, Pundt, & Deller, 2018. With the LLWI, I intend to provide an answer to the research question on the characteristics of a holistic organizational approach to later life work that helps the alignment of the work environment to older workers’ (individual) needs and abilities. Finally, in Chapter 7 (“General Discussion”) I discuss the contributions, implications, and limitations of my research presented here.
Assessing the stock performance outcomes, antecedents and preventive measures of organizational misconduct (2022)
Bouzzine, Yassin Denis
This doctoral thesis deals with the topic of organizational misconduct and covers the three salient research streams in this area by addressing its performance outcomes, antecedents, and preventive measures. Specifically, it is concerned with the question of how different forms of misconduct are reflected in the stock performance of related organizations, thereby, covering the three pillars of corporate sustainability environmental, social, and governance (ESG). Furthermore, it aims to conceptualize how individual cognitive biases may lead to misconduct, therefore, potentially representing an antecedent and how existing management control systems can be enhanced to effectively address specific forms of misconduct, respectively. To these ends, I first review the research stream of stock price reactions to environmental pollution events in terms of the underlying research samples, methodological specifications, and theoretical underpinnings. Based on the findings of the systematic literature review (SLR), I perform three stock-based event studies of the Volkswagen diesel emissions scandal (Dieselgate), workplace sexual harassment (#MeToo accusations), and the 2003 blackout in the US to cove the three ESG dimensions, respectively. In line with the SLR, my event studies reveal substantial stock losses to firms involved in misconduct that are eventually even accompanied by a spillover effect to uninvolved bystanders. Then, I review the extant literature conceptually to develop a framework outlining how moral licensing as an individual cognitive bias might lead to a self-attribution of corporate sustainability, a consecutive accumulation of moral credit, and a later exchange of this credit by engaging in misconduct afterward. Finally, I assess existing workplace sexual harassment management controls, such as awareness training and grievance procedures critically in another conceptual analysis. Based on the shortcomings stemming from management controls’ focus on compliance and negligence of moral duties, I introduce five specific nudges firms should consider to enhance their existing management controls and eventually prevent occurrences of workplace sexual harassment. Based on the six distinct articles within this doctoral thesis, I outline its limitations and point at directions for future research. These mainly address providing further evidence on the long-term performance effects of organizational misconduct, enriching our knowledge on further cognitive biases eventually leading to misconduct, and conceptualizing nudging beyond the use-case of workplace sexual harassment.
"Der Einzelhandelsladen der Zukunft" (2022)
Etzel, Eugen
Nachhaltigkeitsziele im Sinne einer Ökologie, Ökonomie und Soziokultur lassen sich im Bauwesen auf verschiedene Instrumente zurückführen. Optimierung des Wärmeschutzes durch die Energieeinsparverordnung (Effizienz) oder Minimierung von Abfall im Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz (Suffizienz). Um jedoch eine neue Qualität der Nachhaltigkeit zu schaffen, ist ein Paradigmenwechsel notwendig. Dabei können Cradle to Cradle Prinzipien als ökoeffektive Methode angewandt werden, in dem exemplarisch die Biodiversität eingebunden, gesunde Bauprodukte verbaut und erneuerbare Energien genutzt werden. Die Natur dient als Vorbild (Konsistenz). Demnach werden Gebäude nützlich für Mensch, Umwelt und Gesellschaft umgesetzt und gleichzeitig Werte geschaffen. Für den deutschen Einzelhandel bestehen vielschichtige Potenziale, da der Gebäudebestand mit mehreren Millionen Quadratmetern bedeutend ist und die Bauwerke aufgrund von Konzeptänderungen oder Verschleiß der Ladenflächen regelmäßig umgebaut werden. Die Forschung beginnt mit einer Bestandsaufnahme von Cradle to Cradle Bauprodukten und Analyse eines real umgesetzten Einkaufszentrums. Um Einflussfaktoren von Stakeholdern zu identifizieren, wurden qualitative Experteninterviews mit ausgewählten Projektbeteiligten aus Bauherrn, Betreibern, Beratern, Mietparteien und Herstellern durchgeführt. Im Rahmen des Forschungsvorhabens wurde erforscht, inwieweit sich Bauprodukte aus der Gebäudeplanung in wissenschaftlicher Theorie und praktischer Bauwirtschaft umsetzen lassen, Geschäftsmodelle anwendbar sind, Trends und Innovationen im Zusammenhang stehen oder Änderungen in Politik oder Wirtschaft notwendig sind. Im Ergebnis wurden Maßnahmen für eine neue Qualität der Nachhaltigkeit bei Einzelhandelsgebäuden identifiziert. Exemplarisch wird anhand der Interviews deutlich, dass neben einem staatlichen Umweltzeichen oder einer Green Building Planungsdisziplin, insbesondere die Ökonomie in Form von Investitions- und Betriebskosten den größten Stellenwert besitzt. Es braucht einen staatlichen Regulierungsrahmen und neue Geschäftsmodelle, damit nachhaltige Bauprodukte wirtschaftlich werden und durch Stakeholder in den Prozessen der Planung, Bauausführung und dem Betrieb berücksichtigt werden.
Entwicklungslinien im Erneuerbare-Energien-Recht (2022)
Müller, Thorsten
Der Ausbau der erneuerbaren Energien als Ausprägung des klimaschutzpolitischen Substitutionsansatzes wird in Deutschland mithilfe verschiedener Gesetze gesteuert. Dabei haben sich in mehr als 30 Jahren umfangreiche Regelungsstrukturen herausgebildet. Besonders ausgeprägt ist dies im Stromsektor zu beobachten. Hier kön-nen ausgehend vom Kartellrecht über den Zwischenschritt des Stromeinspeisungsgesetzes bis zu den verschie-denen Fassungen des Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetzes vielfältige Entwicklungslinien anhand ausgewählter kon-kreter Veränderungen aufgezeigt werden. Sowohl im Hinblick auf Änderungsdynamik wie -tiefe deutlich weni-ger ausgeprägt sind dagegen die Entwicklungslinien im Wärmesektor. Diese nehmen ihren gesetzlichen Ur-sprung erst 2009 mit dem Erneuerbare-Energien-Wärmegesetz, um dann zusammen mit den gebäudebezoge-nen Effizienzregelungen 2020 infolge eines umfassenden rechtlichen Konsolidierungsschritts im Gebäudeener-giegesetz zu münden. Die Ausgestaltungsschritte im deutschen Erneuerbare-Energien-Recht sind auf vielfältige Weise mit den Ent-wicklungen im europäischen Rechtsrahmen zur Steuerung des Ausbaus der erneuerbaren Energien verwoben. Dies betrifft zunächst die Judikatur zu den primärrechtlichen Anforderungen an die Ausgestaltung mitglied-staatlicher Förderinstrumente, gilt aber besonders für die Entwicklungen im Sekundärrecht. Hier hat sich seit 2001 in mehreren Schritten eine immer detailliertere sekundärrechtliche Ordnung entwickelt. Dabei beinhalten die Entwicklungen der Erneuerbare-Energien-Richtlinien nicht nur eindimensional Steuerungs- und Bindungs-wirkungen von der supranationalen in Richtung der mitgliedstaatlichen Ebene. Vielmehr finden sich darin auch Entwicklungen zur Beschränkung der europarechtlichen Einflüsse, namentlich der Vorgaben zur Warenver-kehrsfreiheit und des Beihilferechts, die eine unmittelbare Reaktion der Mitgliedstaaten auf die Entscheidun-gen der europäischen Gerichte und der Europäischen Kommission darstellen. Das Erneuerbare-Energien-Recht ist zudem eingebettet in das übergreifende Umweltenergie- und Klima-schutzrecht. Mit der sowohl auf europäischer als auch deutscher Ebene im Werden befindlichen umfassenden Klimaschutzordnung lassen sich ebenso wie mit dem sich fortlaufend ändernden Instrumentenmix zahlreiche Wechselwirkungen feststellen. Der mit der neuen Klimaschutz-Governance geschaffene prozedurale Rahmen etabliert ein System von Klimaschutzzielen, Evaluierungs- und Nachsteuerungsvorgaben. Dieser ist aber mit dem Erneuerbare-Energien-Recht und dessen Zielen nur lose verbunden. Detaillierungsgrad und Steuerungs-wirkung der europäischen und der deutschen Klimaschutz-Governance unterscheiden sich dabei deutlich, was auch mit den stärkeren Koordinationsbedürfnissen im eher vertikal orientierten supranationalen Regelungs-verbund begründet ist. Dass die Entwicklung im Erneuerbare-Energien-Recht in absehbarer Zeit zu einem Endpunkt gelangen könnten, ist nicht zu erwarten. Dies wird deutlich, wenn die tatsächlichen Herausforderungen der Transformation und aktuell diskutierte Themenfelder für die weitere Fortschreibung dieses Rechtsbereichs betrachtet werden. Dabei sind die verschiedenen Dimensionen der Integration erneuerbarer Energien zur Vertiefung der System-transformation ebenso von Bedeutung, wie Regelungen zu Akzeptanz und Teilhabe sowie zur Beantwortung der Verteilungsfragen einerseits und eine Reduktion des Komplexitätsumfangs im Recht anderseits.
Sustainable CEO compensation: Conceptual remarks, literature review and empirical analysis with a focus on climate-related aspects (2022)
Winschel, Julija
Consisting of three articles and a framework manuscript, this cumulative dissertation deals with sustainable compensation of chief executive officer (CEO) with a focus on climate-related aspects. Against the backdrop of the European action for sustainability and the EU Green Deal, the dissertation pays special attention to the consideration of climate-related aspects of corporate performance in CEO compensation. In this context, sustainable compensation is characterized by the consideration of long-term interests and sustainability of the company as well as by the inclusion of financial and non-financial aspects of environmental, social and governance performance (ESG) in compensation agreements. While this novel instrument of corporate governance aims to incentivize the implementation of sustainability-oriented corporate strategy, it is particularly important to unfold this incentive effect at the individual CEO level in view of their managerial discretion. The framework manuscript discusses the research objectives, the regulatory and theoretical background, the results of the dissertation and their implications in the context of regulation, research, and business practice. The essence of the dissertation are the three articles. The first article, "Determinants and effects of sustainable CEO compensation: a structured literature review of empirical evidence," examines the current state of empirical research based on 37 articles that were published between 1992 and 2018. Based on a multidimensional research framework, the structured literature review compiles past research findings, identifies contentual and methodological foci in the research area, and derives questions for future research. The second article, "Mapping the determinants of carbon-related CEO compensation: a multidimensional approach," addresses the topic from a conceptual perspective. Taking the existing work as a starting point, a conceptual framework is derived, which organizes the determinants of carbon-related CEO compensation at societal, organizational, group and individual levels of analysis. On this basis, eight propositions are presented that seek to distinguish between the determinants which support and challenge the implementation of carbon-related CEO compensation. The third article, "Climate change policies and carbon-related CEO compensation systems: an exploratory study of European companies," focuses on the use of CO2-oriented performance indicators in CEO compensation. The empirical-qualitative study analyzes corporate disclosure of the 65 largest companies in the EU for the years 2018 and 2019. The study addresses the use of CO2-oriented performance indicators in corporate strategy and CEO compensation. It also examines which compensation components are determined with the help of CO2-oriented performance indicators, which type of performance indicators are used, and whether CO2-intensive and less CO2-intensive companies differ in this regard.
Climate Resilient Communities in the Caribbean (2022)
Farny, Steffen
This research report presents a transdisciplinary student research project on the development of climate resilience of communities on the Caribbean Island Dominica. The research was conducted through a partnership between the Leuphana University Lüneburg and the Sustainable Marine Financing Programme (SMF) of the GIZ. For the GIZ, the research project aimed at improving the understanding of the socio-ecological resilience framework for tackling problems of Marine Managed Areas and Marine Protected Areas. Also, it enabled new thoughts on how the GIZ and other development agencies can more effectively assists island states to better cope with the challenges of climate change. The role of the students from the “Global Environmental and Sustainability Sciences” programme of Leuphana University included the design of four transdisciplinary research projects to research aspects of resilience of Caribbean communities. The developing island states in the Caribbean are extremely vulnerable to more frequent and intense natural hazards while relying on the ecosystem services that are also at risk from extreme weather events, in particular Hurricanes. Low economic stability leads to a dependency of the states on international assistance. To decrease the vulnerability to shocks, counteracting measures that encourage learning and adaptation can increase the resilience against extreme weather events and their consequences. Concepts that were considered during the design of the transdisciplinary research projects were the adaptation of systems, diversity and stakeholder participation and resilience-focused management systems. Also, the students critically assessed the concept of foreign aid and how it can be successful, mitigating the risk of introducing neo-colonial structures. Flood Management, Biodiversity, Small-Scale Agriculture and Foreign Aid on Dominica were the topics of the transdisciplinary projects. The research methods of a literature review, stakeholder mapping, interviews, scenario development and visioning were used in the projects. In four scenarios developed in the ‘Flood Management’ project, it became evident that a broad as well as coordinated stakeholder engagement and a variety of measures are required for community resilience. A key finding of the ‘Biodiversity’ project was the identity dimension of community resilience, underlining the importance of the relationship between individuals and nature. The interlinkage of social identity processes and a resilient disaster response was also stressed by the project ‘Foreign Aid’, which highlighted that financial support is similarly important to inclusivity and reflexivity in the process of resource distribution. To recover from extreme weather events, the social memory also plays an important role. The project on ‘Small-scale Agriculture’ concluded, that the memory-making of local communities is as vital to community resilience as formal plans and trainings. The research project was based on the research approach of transdisciplinarity because of its solution-orientation. It links different academic disciplines and concepts, and non-scientific stakeholders are included to find solutions for societal and related scientific problems. In the four projects, principles of transdisciplinary research were party applied, but some challenges arose due to the geographical distance, time constraints and a strong focus on the scientific part in some phases. Nonetheless, the findings of the projects provide valuable learning lessons to be applied in practice and that can prove useful for future research.
The systemic role of universities in entrepreneurship: from entrepreneurial ecosystem dynamics tot he emergence of entrepreneurial university archetypes (2022)
Bronstein Bejarano, Johann Daniel
Understanding that entrepreneurship can be better modeled from a systemic point of view is a primordial aspect that determines the important role of universities in entrepreneurial ecosystems. What makes the ecosystem approach a valuable tool for understanding social systems is that, from a holistic perspective, their behavior seems to have emerging characteristics. The impact of this “research object” can only be revealed through interrelated causal chains similar to the behavior of natural ecosystems (Mars et al., 2012). Therefore, the entrepreneurial ecosystem concept provides a unique perspective that complements previous studies on networked economic activity with a clear focus on the systemic elements that support entrepreneurship, and an emphasis on policy that promote the entrepreneurial process. This dissertation presents a dual scientific account of the entrepreneurship phenomenon in universities. The work is divided into two equal parts, each of which is composed of two research papers. The narrative of the first half takes on a macro perspective view, consisting of one theoretical and one empirically-based conceptual case study. This part conceptually depicts a systematic approach to entrepreneurialism in higher education, namely an ecosystems perspective. The second half concentrates on the meso- and micro levels of study from the university’s point of view, comprising of a case study as historical account for the emergence of the entrepreneurial university, and of a metasynthesis of empirical case studies in entrepreneurial universities, which serves as the basis for the development of entrepreneurial university archetypes. This doctoral work contributes to an in-depth understanding of Entrepreneurship in universities regarding its systemic qualities and archetypal characteristics of entrepreneurial universities. It argues for an ecosystem’s perspective on the phenomenon of entrepreneurial activity, highlighting the fundamental role that universities play as the heart of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Furthermore, this research expands on the novel concept of the entrepreneurial university by using extensive case study literature to empirically identify distinct archetypes that better reflect the diverse reality of how universities engage as entrepreneurial actors by way of differentiated entrepreneurial structures, systems, and strategies.
Tugendhaftigkeit in John Stuart Mills Theorie des guten Lebens (2022)
Grassmay, Katharina
Die Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zur Erforschung der Schriften John Stuart Mills, indem darin Mills rudimentär ausformulierte Denkfigur und Forschungslücke der „Art of Life“ untersucht wird. Die Autorin erweitert die traditionelle Interpretation Mills als klassischem Utilitaristen um einen geschärften Blick auf Mills Handhabung des antiken Theorieelements der Tugend. Drei überlappende thematische Zugänge – Lust, Charakter, Glückseligkeit – dienen der Veranschaulichung und Stärkung der These, wonach es sich bei Mills Theorie um eine hedonistische, perfektionistisch gefärbte Theorie der guten Lebensführung handelt. Der methodische Rückgriff auf die Lust- und Glückskonzeption des Aristoteles erlaubt es Mills differenzierte Auffassung von Lust bzw. Freude zu ergründen, die Rolle des menschlichen Charakters für das (moralische) Handeln festzustellen und eudemische Spuren im Verständnis von Glück aufzudecken. Abschließend bietet die Dissertationsschrift eine Interpretation der Schriften Mills als Lebenskunstphilosophie mit moralischen und außer-moralischen Ebenen und zeigt Anschlusspotentiale zu antiken, sowie zeitgenössischen (Lebenskunst) Theorien auf.
Die UG (haftungsbeschränkt) als optimale Einstiegsrechtsform für Startups (2022)
Magdziorz, Edyta
Die Wahl der Rechtsform stellt im Zuge der Neugründung eines Startup-Unternehmens für die Gründer eine wichtige Entscheidung dar, denn sie beeinflusst unmittelbar den Gründungsprozess sowie im Nachhinein den Geschäftsbetrieb der gegründeten Gesellschaft. Besonders interessant ist eine Rechtsform mit Haftungsbeschränkung, welche die beliebte GmbH als Kapitalgesellschaft ermöglicht und damit eine persönliche Haftung der Gründungsgesellschafter verhindert. Problematisch ist jedoch für Gründungsinteressierte, die zu Anfang über nicht genügend Startkapital verfügen, die hohe Summe des geforderten Mindeststammkapitals der GmbH aufzubringen. Hier könnte die UG (haftungsbeschränkt) als Option infrage kommen, da sie eine Haftungsbeschränkung ermöglicht und dabei kein gesetzlich festgelegtes Mindeststammkapital bei der Gründung fordert (§ 5a Abs. 1 GmbHG). Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt die Frage, weshalb sich die UG (haftungsbeschränkt) gerade für die Gründung eines Startup-Unternehmens als optimale Einstiegsrechtsform eignet. Das Ziel der Arbeit ist, die UG (haftungsbeschränkt) in ihrer Besonderheit mit den speziellen Sondervorschriften, die in § 5a GmbHG verankert sind, darzustellen. Zudem soll die Verbundenheit zur GmbH aufgezeigt werden. Die Arbeit dient dabei auch als Leitfaden für die Neugründung eines Startup-Unternehmens in Form der UG (haftungsbeschränkt) und zeigt, wie die Gründung auf einfachster Weise unter geringen Kosten mit dem Start einer UG (haftungsbeschränkt) gelingen kann.
Signifying well-being in measuring a progress of municipal sustainable development in Japan: An examination of ‘subjective’ sustainable development indicators (2022)
Hatakeyama, Takehiro
Undertaking local actions, such as implementing public (sustainability) policy, plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable development (SD) at the municipal level. In this regard, indicator-based assessment supports effective implementation by measuring the SD process, based upon evidence-based outcomes that indicators produce. Over the last decade, using subjective indicators, which rely on an individual’s self-perception to measure subjects, has gained its significance in sustainability assessment, in line with the increasing importance of signifying individual’s and community’s well-being (WB) in the context of SD. This study aims to discuss and clarify the scope and functions of subjective sustainable development indicators (SDIs) conceptually and theoretically while examining the usability of such indicators employed in the practice of assessing sustainability policy and action process in a Japanese municipality. Furthermore, the potential usability of using subjective SDIs in monitoring a municipal initiative of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is also explanatorily examined. The present paper consists of a framework paper and three individual studies. In the framework paper, Section 1 introduces the global transition of SD discourse and the role that local authorities and implementing public policy play in achieving SD while outlining how WB positions in the SD context. Section 2 provides a brief overview of the major scope of overall SDIs at the conceptual and theoretical levels. Section 3 defines WB in the study’s own right while exploring the scope of indicators measuring WB. In addition, this study strives to further clarify the peculiar scope of SDIs, measuring WB by synthesising the findings. Section 4 overviews how SD at the municipal level in Japan is practiced while acknowledging the extent to which residents perceive WB and SDGs in policymaking. Section 5 provides a brief yet extensive summary of the three individual studies. Section 6 discusses the findings while presenting implications for further study and practices of subjective SDIs. Furthermore, the three individual studies provide a thorough and in-depth discussion of the study subject. Study 1 illustrates the SD trend at the municipal level in Japan and the growing recognition of using subjective SDIs in public (sustainability) policy assessment in exploring comparative SDI systems to municipality groups. The findings, in turn, raise the need for a further study on subjective SDIs. Study 2 extensively discusses the concept of WB as the overarching subject to be measured while examining varying approaches and scopes of SDIs. It identifies three differentiated WB (i.e., material and social objective WB as well as subjective WB) and distinctive approaches of subjective SDIs (i.e., expert-led and citizen-based approaches) alongside objective SDIs. The findings suggest that these SDIs identified are, conceptually, most capable of measuring associated WB; for instance, citizen-based subjective SDIs can most optimally measure subjective WB. Finally, Study 3 examines the usability of (citizen-based) subjective SDIs in a practice of assessing public policy, aiming at municipal SD, and the potential usability of using such indicators in monitoring a municipal SDG initiative. The findings highlight the determinants and obstacles of using subjective SDIs as well as signifying WB in measuring progress of a municipal SD practice.
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