Open Access

This dissertation includes an introduction and five empirical papers focusing on the educational and career decision-making process of individuals in Germany. The five papers embrace different determinants of educational and career decisions including school performance, social background, leisure activities as well as professional expectations, and contribute to the existing literature in this research area. Chapter 2 of this dissertation (written jointly with Christian Pfeifer) begins by analysing the nexus between students’ time allocation and school performance in terms of grades and satisfaction with their own performance in mathematics, the German language and a first foreign language, as well as overall achievement. While previous studies have primarily focused on isolated activities, this chapter looks at the heterogeneity of three important extracurricular activities: student jobs, sports and participation in music. Moreover, the heterogeneity of each activity is addressed by accounting for different types of the particular activity and differences in the number of years the activity has been pursued. For this purpose, data from the German SOEP, as a representative panel survey of private households and people in Germany, in particular cross-sectional survey data of 3388 students who are about 17 years old and enrolled in a German secondary school, were used. The main findings are that having a job as a student is negatively correlated with school performance, whereas participation in sports and music is positively correlated. However, the results reveal heterogeneity in each activity, especially with respect to intensity. Chapter 3 addresses the concrete post-school decision of school students, in particular whether to study or to enter the German VET system. It focuses on individual risk preferences and the social background of individuals and how these determinants affect the ultimate decision to enrol in university or to start an apprenticeship given the same level of qualification. For the empirical approach data from the German SOEP were used, in particular information on individuals’ educational decisions between 2007 and 2013. The results indicate that (i) individual risk preferences do not have an overall effect on the real transition; (ii) privileged individuals are more likely to take up higher education; and (iii) compared to highly educated parents, parents without an academic background are less likely to guide their children into tertiary education, regardless of how much they support their children with their school work. Chapter 4 deals with the reconsideration of educational decisions in terms of early contract cancellations in VET (Vocational Education and Training). In particular, the effects of a second job on the intention to cancel a VET contract early are analysed for apprentices in Germany. To date, the literature in this research area mainly focuses on income as a determinant of early contract cancellation in VET, but is lacking in investigations of the consequences of low income during an apprenticeship, such as the need for a second job. For the empirical approach the representative German firm-level study ‘BIBB Survey Vocational Training from the Trainee’s Point of View 2008’, conducted by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), is used. The survey contains 5901 apprentices that were interviewed during their second year of apprenticeship (205 schools, 340 classes, and 15 common occupations). Furthermore, it includes the design, procedures, basic conditions, and quality criteria of apprenticeships. The applied probit regressions show a higher intention to quit if apprentices require a secondary job to cover their living costs. In Chapter 5, new data on 191 apprentices from a vocational school, located in a northern German federal state, are used to validate the empirical results of Chapter 4. This chapter presents new insights into secondary-job-related burdens during apprenticeship. Due to limitations in the data, the applied empirical approach in Chapter 4 lacks to analyse how holding multiple jobs increases the intention to leave an apprenticeship early. Therefore, Chapter 5 includes the investigations of burdens related to the second job. The results indicate a lower intention to quit the apprenticeship if an apprentice holds a second job to cover living costs. However, secondary jobs are linked to lower quality of training, which, on the other hand, increases the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. Furthermore, the probability of secondary-job-related burdens increases with the number of working hours. Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by investigating subjective determinants of early contract cancellations in VET. It examines ten questions on what apprentices want to achieve and how unfulfilled expectations affect the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. To date, research on early contract cancellation in VET has concentrated on objective determinants, such as income, schooling level, age, gender, or migration background. Hence, the findings of this investigation contributes to the existing research on early contract cancellation. The questions considered include information on the performance, personal development, career development and prospects or position in society and their meaning to apprentices. For the research approach, the ‘BIBB Survey Vocational Training from the Trainee’s Point of View 2008’ is considered again. The probit and ordered probit regressions applied show significant effects of job characteristics that represent job security. The expectation of being retained after an apprenticeship and the encouragement to consistently train further decrease the intention to leave the apprenticeship early. Furthermore, women appear to be more affected by job security signals than men, but they also sort more often into occupations with lower retention probabilities. Consequently, this result may be an indication of occupational segregation rather than a sign of differences between sexes.

Halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) have been applied since the 1960s in various industrial and consumer products to protect humans as well as private and public possessions. In the past decade polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), formerly the major applied HFRs were widely restricted and adopted as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Stockholm Convention due to their adverse effects on humans and the environment as well as their ubiquitous occurrence in the global environment. Besides PBDEs, various alternative HFRs have been applied for decades as well, or were recently developed to replace PBDEs. However, their potential adverse properties, environmental distribution and fate are largely unknown. Therefore, this thesis addresses the global occurrence, distribution and transport of alternative HFRs versus PBDEs in the marine atmosphere and seawater toward the Polar Regions in order to examine their longrange atmospheric transport (LRAT) potential. This thesis presents the first data on alternative HFRs in the atmosphere of the marine environment and the Polar Regions. Alternative brominated flame retardants (BFRs), Dechlorane compounds and PBDEs were investigated in high-volume air and seawater samples taken along several sampling transects in the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean toward the Polar Regions of the Arctic and Antarctic. In addition, three sampling cruises were conducted in the German Bight, North Sea. Several alternative HFRs were detected in the global marine atmosphere and seawater with hexabromobenzene (HBB), pentabromotoluene (PBT), pentabromobenzene (PBBz), 2,3- dibromopropyl-2,4,6-tribromophenyl ether (DPTE) and Dechlorane Plus (DP) being the predominant compounds which were observed in concentrations similar or even higher than PBDEs. Total atmospheric concentrations ranged from <1 pg m-3 over the open oceans up to 42 pg m-3 over the East Indian Archipelago. Seawater concentrations ranged from <1 pg L-1 in open ocean seawater up to 21 pg L-1 in coastal regions, while estuarine concentrations reached up to 6800 pg L-1. Overall, the comparison revealed that alternative HFRs dominate versus PBDEs in air and seawater, both in coastal regions as well as the Polar Regions, showing a shift from PBDEs toward alternative HFR in the marine atmosphere and seawater. The distribution in the global atmosphere was strongly influenced by the proximity to potential source regions and the pathway of the sampled air masses. Highest concentrations were observed in continentally influenced air masses, while low background concentrations occurred during sampling of oceanic remote air masses. In general, Western Europe, East and Southeast Asia but also Africa were identified as source regions for the marine environment, especially for alternative HFRs as well as BDE-209. In contrast, relatively low peak concentrations of the PBDE congeners of the Penta- and OctaBDE mixtures under continental influence were observed, indicating limited emissions of legacy PBDEs. The dry air-seawater gas exchange estimation showed that the atmosphere is a source for seawater resulting in net deposition into the global oceans after atmospheric emissions and transport, both in coastal regions as well as in the open oceans. Besides atmospheric depositions, riverine discharge was shown to act as source for coastal environments. The investigation of sampling transects toward the Polar Regions revealed that several alternative HFRs – in particular HBB, PBT, DPTE, PBBz and DP – undergo LRAT toward the Polar Regions in an extent similar to PBDEs and, therefore, meet the LRAT criterion of POPs under the Stockholm Convention. DP was found to undergo LRAT attached to airborne particles whereby stereoselective LRAT differences were shown for the two DP stereoisomers. With respect to LRAT, the results of this thesis therefore imply that alternative HFRs – in particular HBB, PBT, DPTE and DP – aren’t suitable replacements for PBDEs, but chemicals of emerging global environmental concern and possible future POPs.

Die Alkoholproblematik am Arbeitsplatz stellt einen wichtigen Teilaspekt der allgemeinen Suchtproblematik dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird dargestellt, welche Möglichkeiten, aber auch welche Grenzen des hilfreichen Handelns am Arbeitsplatz allgemein und am Arbeitsplatz Universität insbesondere gegeben sind. Die Arbeit ist in vier Hauptteile gegliedert, die Gegenstand und Prozeß nachvollziehbar beschreiben. Im Teil I wird ausgehend von der Ätiologie und der Pathogenese die Funktion und Bedeutung der Droge Alkohol in der Gesellschaft beschrieben und der Zusammenhang zwischen Arbeitsbedingungen und Konsumverhalten dargelegt. Die Vorstellung eines Modells betrieblicher Alkoholprävention schließt sich im Teil II an. Die Implementierung eines Alkoholprogrammes an der Pilot-Universität wird im Teil III beschrieben. Unter Berücksichtigung erster Forschungsergebnisse wird ein Handlungskonzept für die Alkoholprävention an der Pilot-Universität formuliert, in dem jedoch Organisationsstruktur und Organisationskultur von Universitäten und Hochschulen noch nicht ausreichend berücksichtigt sind. Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wird daher der Versuch unternommen, ein Konzept zu entwerfen, das sich an der Methode der Organisationsentwicklung orientiert.

Against the backdrop of aging populations, labor shortages, and a longer healthy life expectancy, there has recently been considerable discussion of the great potential that post-retirement activities hold for individuals, organizations, and society alike. This dissertation consists of three empirical papers investigating the life reality of active retirees in Germany. In addition, framework conditions and motivational structures that need to be considered in creating jobs for this group of workers are examined. The first paper identifies the prerequisites for productivity after retirement age and describes the changed nature of modern-day retirement. Current levels of post-retirement work are quantified by reference to German Microcensus data. The data show that adults continue to engage in paid employment beyond the applicable retirement age, with self-employment and unpaid work in family businesses making up the greatest share of post-retirement activities. Qualitative data collected from 146 active retirees (mean age = 67 years, standard deviation = 4) showed that the changes entailed in retirement include more flexible structures in everyday life. Content analysis revealed that reasons for taking up post-retirement activities were the desire to help, pass on knowledge, or remain active; personal development and contact with others; and a desire for appreciation and recognition. In addition, flexible working hours and the freedom to make decisions are evidently important aspects that need to be taken into account in creating employment activities for silver workers. The second paper extends the findings of the first paper by investigating the differences that respondents experienced between their former career job and their post-retirement activities, drawing on an additional quantitative sample of active retirees (N = 618, mean age = 69 years, standard deviation = 4). Factor analysis revealed differences in four areas: First, differences were identified in person-related variables, such as work ability. Second, differences were perceived in the scope of the job itself with regard to workers’ tasks, skills, or job function. Third, the perceived freedom of time allocation and flexibility in job practice distinguished between the silver job and the former career job. Fourth, differences were noted in perceived responsibility and in the significance of the activity. The third paper further examined how relevant personal motivational goals (achievement, appreciation, autonomy, contact, and generativity) as well as corresponding occupational characteristics of the silver job were related to life and work satisfaction in the quantitative sample (N = 661, mean age = 69 years, standard deviation = 4). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the motivational goals of achievement, appreciation, autonomy, contact, and generativity significantly predicted life satisfaction, whereas only generativity predicted work satisfaction. With respect to the occupational characteristics, none of the situational predictors influenced life satisfaction, but opportunities to fulfill one’s achievement goals, to pass on knowledge, and to experience appreciation and autonomy predicted work satisfaction. The results suggest that post-retirement workers seem to differentiate between perceived life satisfaction and work satisfaction as two independent constructs. In conclusion, key motives for taking up post-retirement activities were generativity (the wish to help and pass on knowledge), but also personal development, appreciation, autonomy, and contact. The findings indicate that organizations should introduce flexible working hours, and offer silver workers advisory and freelance work. Providing freedom to make decisions and ensuring due appreciation of the contribution made by silver workers will lead to a fruitful interplay of silver workers and organizations. Future research should build on these findings by applying longitudinal designs and drawing on samples of retirees with more diverse educational and financial backgrounds. The papers of this dissertation echo the call for a new, more positive way of looking at the capacities of active retirees.

With this dissertation, I present a human resources approach to entrepreneurship through selection and training of small-business owners in developing countries. Entrepreneurship is an important source of employment, innovation, and general economic prosperity (Autio, 2005; Walter et al., 2005; Reynolds et al., 2005; Kuratko, 2003). In developing countries, job creation through business ownership is especially important because job opportunities are limited (Walter et al., 2005; Mead & Liedholm, 1998). Strengthening the small business sector is one of the best ways to reduce poverty and increase economic growth (Birch, 1987). Thus, this dissertation adds to the scientific literature in taking a human resources approach to entrepreneurship: selecting and training entrepreneurs. Selection has widely been researched on in various scientific fields like human resource management, industrial-, work-, and organizational psychology, but only partly focusing on selection of entrepreneurs. Regarding training, there exists a fair amount of studies that focus on entrepreneurship education, but a lot of them suffer from substantial heterogeneity and methodological flaws (Glaub & Frese (2011); McKenzie & Woodruff (2013)). The dissertation combines the ideas of using selection procedures for entrepreneurs with the idea of teaching entrepreneurial skills.

In der Arbeit wird der Versuch unternommen, ein differenziertes Kategoriensystem zu entwickeln, das für eine Beurteilung von Unterricht auf systemisch-konstruktivistischer Grundlage geeignet ist. Es werden Analysekriterien herausgearbeitet, die auf vier „Leitdimensionen“ beruhen. Berücksichtigt werden dabei die erkenntnistheoretischen Grundsätze des Konstruktivismus, der Grad der Komplexität, der biographische Kontext und der Steuerung- und Wahlmöglichkeiten durch die Schüler. Sie unterliegen dem Einfluß externer situativer, didaktischer, methodischer und institutioneller Faktoren. In Form einer analytischen Forschungsstudie wird die Durchführbarkeit des Konzeptes nachgewiesen. Gegenstand der Untersuchung sind Planungen von Simulationsspielen, wie sie im Rahmen der Ausbildung von Referendaren am Staatlichen Studienseminar Hamburg als Entwürfe für den Unterricht im berufsbildenden Schulwesen ausgearbeitet worden sind. Dabei liegt der Fokus auf Rollen-, Plan- und Diskussionsspielen. Die Ergebnisse werden dokumentiert und bewertet. Die Analyse brachte eine große Streubreite von Planungsvarianten und damit die Möglichkeit, zahlreiche Strukturierungsvorschläge im Hinblick auf eine Erweiterung der Handlungsspielräume zu geben.

Emotionen sind keineswegs immer hilfreich! Nahezu durchgehend müssen sie reguliert werden (vgl. Werner & Gross, 2010). Die Emotion „Ärger“ ist allgegenwärtig und von großer Bedeutung im Leben der Menschen. Jugendliche empfinden bei der Lösung ihrer Entwicklungsaufgaben häufig starke Emotionen, vor allem negativer Art (vgl. Seiffge-Krenke, 2004). In ihren Freundschaften haben sie die Möglichkeit, Unterstützung beim Absolvieren dieser Aufgaben zu erhalten (vgl. von Salisch, 2008). Dabei ist es wichtig, dass sie sich ihrem jeweiligen Partner gegenüber emotional und sozial kompetent verhalten, um die Freundschaft nicht zu gefährden. Die Forschung konnte zeigen, dass eine adaptive Emotionsregulierung beim Erleben negativer Emotionen mit wesentlichen positiven outcomes verknüpft ist und sich positiv auf die Freundschaften von Jugendlichen auswirkt (z.B. Grob & Smolenski, 2005). Welche langfristigen Folgen eine maladaptive Emotionsregulierung in Bezug auf problematische Verhaltensweisen im Jugendalter haben kann ist dem gegenüber noch unzureichend erforscht. Vor dem Hintergrund einer adaptiven und maladaptiven Regulation der Emotion „Ärger“ in Freundschaften werden die Zusammenhänge mit den Problemverhaltensweisen „Depression, depressive Symptome und depressive Stimmungen“, „hoher Alkoholkonsum und Einstellung zu Alkohol“ und „pathologischer Internetgebrauch“ untersucht. In der hier vorliegenden Studie wurden Jugendliche aus sieben Oberschulen des Bundeslandes Brandenburg (14 - 17 Jahre, Querschnitt - N = 380, Längsschnitt - N = 299) im Selbst- und Fremdbericht zu emotionsregulativen Strategien im Umgang mit Ärger auf ihre beste Freundin/ ihren besten Freund befragt. Weiter berichten die Jugendlichen in dem genutzten Fragebogen über ihre Einstellung zu Alkohol und ihre Nutzungsgewohnheiten, Formen ihres Internetgebrauchs und ihre emotionale Lage. Es wird angenommen, dass die Nutzung maladaptiver Ärgerregulationsstrategien (in Form von relational und direkt-aggressiven Verhaltensweisen) mit höheren Ausprägungen auf den Problemverhaltensskalen einhergeht. Die Ergebnisse weisen auf spezifische Formen und Funktionen ärgerregulativer Strategien bei Jugendlichen hin. Sie lassen weiter vermuten, dass die Art der Regulierung der Emotion Ärger im Umgang mit dem besten Freund einen Einfluss auf die Ausprägung problematischer Verhaltensweisen haben kann.

Nachhaltigkeitsziele im Sinne einer Ökologie, Ökonomie und Soziokultur lassen sich im Bauwesen auf verschiedene Instrumente zurückführen. Optimierung des Wärmeschutzes durch die Energieeinsparverordnung (Effizienz) oder Minimierung von Abfall im Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz (Suffizienz). Um jedoch eine neue Qualität der Nachhaltigkeit zu schaffen, ist ein Paradigmenwechsel notwendig. Dabei können Cradle to Cradle Prinzipien als ökoeffektive Methode angewandt werden, in dem exemplarisch die Biodiversität eingebunden, gesunde Bauprodukte verbaut und erneuerbare Energien genutzt werden. Die Natur dient als Vorbild (Konsistenz). Demnach werden Gebäude nützlich für Mensch, Umwelt und Gesellschaft umgesetzt und gleichzeitig Werte geschaffen. Für den deutschen Einzelhandel bestehen vielschichtige Potenziale, da der Gebäudebestand mit mehreren Millionen Quadratmetern bedeutend ist und die Bauwerke aufgrund von Konzeptänderungen oder Verschleiß der Ladenflächen regelmäßig umgebaut werden. Die Forschung beginnt mit einer Bestandsaufnahme von Cradle to Cradle Bauprodukten und Analyse eines real umgesetzten Einkaufszentrums. Um Einflussfaktoren von Stakeholdern zu identifizieren, wurden qualitative Experteninterviews mit ausgewählten Projektbeteiligten aus Bauherrn, Betreibern, Beratern, Mietparteien und Herstellern durchgeführt. Im Rahmen des Forschungsvorhabens wurde erforscht, inwieweit sich Bauprodukte aus der Gebäudeplanung in wissenschaftlicher Theorie und praktischer Bauwirtschaft umsetzen lassen, Geschäftsmodelle anwendbar sind, Trends und Innovationen im Zusammenhang stehen oder Änderungen in Politik oder Wirtschaft notwendig sind. Im Ergebnis wurden Maßnahmen für eine neue Qualität der Nachhaltigkeit bei Einzelhandelsgebäuden identifiziert. Exemplarisch wird anhand der Interviews deutlich, dass neben einem staatlichen Umweltzeichen oder einer Green Building Planungsdisziplin, insbesondere die Ökonomie in Form von Investitions- und Betriebskosten den größten Stellenwert besitzt. Es braucht einen staatlichen Regulierungsrahmen und neue Geschäftsmodelle, damit nachhaltige Bauprodukte wirtschaftlich werden und durch Stakeholder in den Prozessen der Planung, Bauausführung und dem Betrieb berücksichtigt werden.