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Der Wandel des Energiesystems ist eine der zentralen Nachhaltigkeitstransformationen, denen sich die Forschung widmet. Wie für die Transition-Forschung verschiedenlich festgestellt, besteht allerdings eine gewisse Lücke bei der Frage, wie Nachhaltigkeitstransformationen organisiert und finanziert werden. Insbesondere fehlt es erstens an einer Ausdifferenzierung und vertieften Analyse einzelner institutionell-organisatorischer Lösungen und zweitens an einer Darstellung im Zusammenhang der komplexen sozio-ökologisch-technischen Systeme, in die konkrete Organisationslösungen für eine nachhaltige Energieversorgung eingebunden sind. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden mit genossenschaftlichen Ansätzen, also Organisationslösungen mit (Teil-)Eigentum der Bürgerinnen und Bürger an den Anlagen, spezifische hybride finanzielle Arrangements im Energiesektor in den Fokus gerückt. Dem institutionenanalytischen Ansatz der Bloomington School folgend wird im Rahmenpapier und insgesamt sechs Fachartikeln der Frage nachgegangen, welche Formen genossenschaftlicher Ansätze im Global Norden und Globalen Süden anzutreffen sind und welche Rolle diesen in den Transformationsprozessen des jeweiligen Energiesystems zukommt. Für die Analyse wird auf das Social-Ecological Systems Framework zurückgegriffen, das für die einzelnen Untersuchungen modifiziert bzw. konkretisiert wird. Im Einzelnen wird in den Fachartikeln ein Überblick über die Erkenntnisse zu genossenschaftlichen Ansätzen im Globalen Süden gegeben, auf der Makroebene den wechselnden politischen Prozessen von Koordination und contestation nachgegangen, auf der Mesoebene die Entwicklungen von Windenergiegenossenschaften in Belgien, Dänemark, Deutschland und dem Vereinigten Königreich vergleichend analysiert, der Zusammenhang von Finanz- und Energiesystem untersucht und für diesen Kontext Gerechtigkeitsnormen konkretisiert und schließlich auf der Mikroebene die Inklusivität von Bürgerenergieinitiativen näher betrachtet und Unterschiede in den Investitionsmotiven verschiedener Bürgerenergieakteure herausgearbeitet.
Supporting sustainability transformation through research requires, in equal parts, knowledge about complex problems and knowledge that supports individual and collective action to change the system. Recasting the conditions, characteristics, and modes of research processes that address these needs leads to solution-oriented research in sustainability science. This is supported by systematically analyzing the system’s dynamics, envisioning the desired future target state, and by engaging and designing strategic pathways. In addition, learning and capacity building are important crosscutting processes for co-producing required knowledge. In research, we use sophisticated representations as mediators between theories and objects of interest, depicted as visualizations, models, and simulations. They simplify, idealize, and store large and dense amounts of information. Representations are already employed in the service of sustainability, e.g., in communication about climate change. Understanding them as tools to facilitate processes, dialogue, mutual learning, shared understanding, and communication can yield contributions to knowledge processes of analyzing, envisioning, and engaging, and has implications on the design of the sustainability solution. Therefore I ask, what role do representations and representational practices play in the generation of sustainability solutions in different knowledge processes? Four empirical case studies applying rough set analysis, multivariate statistics, systematic literature review, and expert interviews target this research question. The overall aim of this dissertation is to contribute to a stronger foundation and the role of representation in sustainability science. This includes: (i) to explore and conceptualize representations for the three knowledge processes along selected characteristics and mechanisms; (ii) to understand representational practices as tools and embedded into larger methodological frameworks; (iii) to understand the connection between representation and (mutual) learning in sustainability science. Results point toward crosscutting mechanisms of representations for knowledge processes and the need to build representational literacy to responsible design and participate in representational practices for sustainability.
To counteract species loss and preserve the remaining biodiversity, with its important ecosystem functioning and services essential to human well-being, there is an urgent need to develop promising and long-term conservation strategies. In order to achieve these goals, extensive research to gain a better understanding of the general mechanisms underlying community diversity is of greatest importance. Especially, the identification of intrinsic ecological and distributional species traits is receiving increased attention in ecology and conservation biology research. Depending on the expression of their traits, species perform particular ecosystem functions and respond in a specific manner to environmental conditions. Although insects make up the largest part of animal diversity, the majority of studies on extinctions have mainly focused on vertebrates. Among invertebrates either charismatic taxa or those targeted by conservation laws have been investigated until now (e.g. butterflies or saproxylic beetles). Being highly species-rich and trait-diverse, ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) should be even more suitable for conducting trait-based analyses. Thus, using ground beetles as a model taxon, four case studies focusing on the analyses of traits form the basis of this doctoral thesis. The work of this thesis was conducted with the aim of gaining general insights on the influence of species traits on ground beetle community compositions, such as habitat occupancy and species vulnerability to extinction, for instance. An important aspect when investigating species traits is the consideration of confounding factors, such as dependent relations between the different traits. Compiling a large dataset of 555 Central European species, the author identified that dependent relations between the six tested traits of ground beetles (distribution range size, habitat specialization, body size, hind-wing morphology, breeding season and trophic level) are highly common. Across all identified dependent trait relations, the relation between body size and hind wing morphology or range size and hind wing morphology showed the strongest significant dependencies. Since the consideration of trait relations is necessary to provide reliable interpretations, all analyses of this thesis tested several traits simultaneously and considered possible trait interactions. Studies on local communities found specific traits characterizing the local species pools of certain habitat types. Here, the species pools of seven different habitat types (coastal, forest, mountain, open, riparian, wetland and special habitat) were used to determine habitat-specific trait filters. The identified traits, characteristic for certain habitat types, were in most cases in accordance with the previous findings on local communities. Across Germany, the species of frequently disturbed habitat types, namely coastal, riparian and wetland habitats were characterized by small body size, high amount of macroptery, intermediate to high habitat specialization, spring breeding, and predatory feeding behavior. The species of stable habitat types (forest, mountain, and open habitats), however, were found to be generally larger in body size and more frequently breeding in autumn, further displaying greater variations in the other traits. The gained knowledge on the habitat-specific filtering of traits improve our understanding of the organization and assembly of communities, and can thereby help to detect alterations in the habitat-specific species pool due to natural or human-induced environmental changes. Furthermore, traits can provide evidence on species occurrences and vulnerability to extinction. Three case studies of this thesis aimed to gain new insights on this topic, through the investigations on the following research questions: (1) Which traits drive species extinction risks of Central European ground beetle species? (2) How traits influence the species occurrences of 28 forest species within a large area in Central Europe? (3) Whether certain traits are related to long-term population trends of the species pool from an ancient forest in northern Germany? The results indicated, that depending on the habitat type and tested species pool, different traits prove to be good predictors for the vulnerability of species. Nevertheless, across different geographical and taxonomical scales, especially species with small range sizes and high habitat specialization faced a greater risk of extinction. Therefore, the two traits distributional range size and habitat specialization emerge as reliable predictors of ground beetles vulnerability to extinction. Interestingly, body size did not display a consistent response; while increasing body size led to higher extinction risk in riparian, wetland and open habitats and large macropterous species showed higher extinction risks across the entire species pool, smaller species showed long-term population declines in an ancient forest.
"Sustainable development" evolves along the resolutions, declarations, and reports from international processes in the framework of the United Nations (UN). The consensual outputs from such processes feature global-generalised and context-free perspectives. However, implementation requires action at diverse and context-rich local levels as well. Moreover, while in such UN processes national states are the only contractual parties, it is increasingly recognised that other ("nonstate") actors are crucial to sustainability. The research presented here places the attention on bottom-up initiatives that are advancing innovative ways to tackle universal access to clean energy and to strengthen small-scale family farmers. This means, the focus is on bottom-up initiatives advancing local implementation of global sustainability targets, more precisely, targets that make part of the Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 7 (SDG 2 and SDG7). The research asks how such bottom-up initiatives can contribute to the diffusion of sustainability innovations, thereby also contributing to social change. Three aims are derived out of that central question: (1) To understand the role of bottom-up initiatives in the diffusion of sustainability innovations and in the thereby involved social changes. (2) To contribute with my research to the actual diffusion of sustainability innovations. (3) To outline a research approach that provides a solid conceptual and methodological framework for attaining the analytical and transformative aims. The doctoral research comprises four single studies, in which the notion of diffusion is explored at different scopes of social scales. It begins with a thorough analysis of diffusion programs of domestic biodigesters to rural households in countries of the global south. The focus is on the process by which this specific technical inno0vation results integrated (or not) into the daily realities of single rural households, that is, the adoption process. In the second study, the attention is on energy supply models based on different decentralised renewable technologies. Central to these models is the building of new (or strengthening of existing) local socioeconomic structures that can assume and ensure the proper operation and supply of energy services. The interest in this study is on the strategies that organisations implementing community-based energy projects apply to support the realisation of such local structures. The third study focuses on a network of bottom-up initiatives that have been advancing alternative approaches to family farming in Colombia. The network mainly comprises farmers associations, other organisations from civil society, and researchers who had been collaborating and experimenting with innovations in different innovation fields such as technical, organisational, financial, and commercialisation schemes. The aim of this third study is to provide insights into the challenges and difficulties faced by these actors in broadening the diffusion of the innovations they have been advancing. To perform this study, a methodological strategy is applied that combines a transdisciplinary mutual learning format with qualitative content analysis techniques. The fourth and last study is a conceptual disquisition. It develops a conceptual framework that (a) provides better accounts for the particularities of endeavours aimed at the diffusion of knowledge and practices from the bottom-up across local contexts and social scales, and (b) advances first conceptual steps towards an explicit account for the role that innovation research (and innovation researchers) can assume for the actual realisation of diffusion. The main findings or contributions of the doctoral research can be categorised into four subjects: 1) Bottom-up initiatives contribute to the diffusion of sustainable innovations by mobilising transformative resources for inducing diffusion in their scope of action and creating spaces for experimentation in which interventions can be tested (and if necessary adjusted) in order to ensure the proper deployment of innovations. 2) In their efforts to advance the diffusion of sustainability innovations, bottom-up initiatives contribute to social changes for ensuring the effective deployment of the innovations and building local available storage of transformative resources. 3) A conceptualisation of innovation diffusion, in which the work of academic researchers studying innovation is a constitutive part of transdisciplinary knowledge articulations that promote diffusion. In this way transdisciplinary research alliances can be envisioned in which researchers investigate about, with, and for bottom-up initiatives. 4) Contributions to the consolidation, systematisation, and dissemination of strategies that are applied by farmers associations in order to strength the economic, social, environmental, and cultural dimensions of Colombian family farmers.
Vielen Menschen fällt es schwer, regelmäßig sportlich aktiv zu sein (Duttler, 2014). Diese Problematik ist bereits im Jugendalter zu beobachten und zeigt sich darin, dass viele Jugendliche nicht ausreichend körperlich aktiv sind (HBSC-Studienverbund Deutschland, 2015). Sportliche Inaktivität und Bewegungsmangel wirken sich sowohl negativ auf die Gesundheit als auch auf die gesamte psychische und physische Entwicklung eines Menschen aus (Hair, Park, Ling & Moore, 2009). Einer der wichtigsten Faktoren für eine langfristige und kontinuierliche sportliche Betätigung ist das Erleben von Freude während des Sports (Woods, Tannehill & Walsh, 2012). Freude am Sport sollte möglichst frühzeitig, beispielsweise im Schulsport, gefördert werden, da hier eine große Anzahl Jugendlicher erreicht werden kann. Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der zentralen Frage, auf welche Art und Weise Freude an sportlicher Aktivität im Rahmen des Schulsports gefördert werden kann, so dass Jugendliche animiert werden auch außerhalb der Schule regelmäßig sportlich aktiv zu sein. Insgesamt wurden vier Studien durchgeführt um diese Fragestellung zu beantworten. In der ersten Studie wurde ein Fragebogen entwickelt und validiert, um Freude am Schulsport im Jugendalter messen zu können. Basierend auf theoretischen Ansätzen fand eine Weiterentwicklung des Konstrukts „Sportfreude“ zu einem 3-Faktorenmodell (Vergnügen, Flow-Erleben, Erholung) statt. Die psychometrische Untersuchung erfolgte anhand einer Stichprobe mit N = 1 253 Schülerinnen und Schülern der Klassenstufen 7 bis 10. Konfirmatorische Faktorenanalysen bestätigten die angenommene 3-Faktorenstruktur. Die Reliabilitätskoeffizienten der internen Konsistenz und der Retestung lagen im akzeptablen bis guten Bereich. Als Hinweise für die konvergente Validität liegen Korrelationen mit intrinsischer Motivation, allgemeiner Sportlichkeit, Sportnoten und dem Sportpensum in der Freizeit vor. Die zweite Studie zielte darauf ab, den in Studie I entwickelten Fragebogen zur Erfassung der Freude von Schülerinnen und Schülern im Schulsport hinsichtlich der Messinvarianz über verschiedene Schulformen zu überprüfen. Hierbei wurde untersucht, inwiefern die Messeigenschaften des Fragebogens für Schülerinnen und Schüler unterschiedlicher Schulformen (Gymnasium, Realschule, Hauptschule, Gesamtschule/Oberschule) vergleichbar sind. Darüber hinaus wurden Zusammenhänge der Freude (Vergnügen, Flow-Erleben, Erholung) am Schulsport mit den Sportnoten untersucht und über die unterschiedlichen Schulformen hinweg verglichen. Basierend auf einer Stichprobe von N = 1 351 Schülerinnen und Schülern wurden Nachweise für strikte Messinvarianz über Schulformen gefunden. Die drei Facetten der Freude korrelierten am höchsten mit den Sportnoten für Schülerinnen und Schüler der Hauptschule und am niedrigsten für die Schülerinnen und Schüler des Gymnasiums. Ziel der dritten Studie war es, den Einfluss von sieben Faktoren (wahrgenommene Kompetenz, soziale Eingebundenheit, sozialer Umgang, Autonomie/Mitbestimmung, Lehrkompetenz, allgemeine Sportlichkeit und elterliche Unterstützung) auf das Erleben von Freude am Schulsport zu untersuchen. Diese Faktoren wurden basierend auf der Selbstbestimmungstheorie (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) und auf empirischen Befunden als besonders relevant für Freude erachtet. Diese Studie wurde mit N = 1 598 Schülerinnen und Schüler der Klassenstufen 7 bis 10 durchgeführt. Sportfreude wurde anhand des in Studie I validierten Fragebogens erfasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigten moderate bis starke Zusammenhänge von Freude mit den sieben Einflussfaktoren, wobei soziale Eingebundenheit und wahrgenommenes Kompetenzerleben sich als stärkste Prädiktoren erwiesen. In der vierten Studie wurde basierend auf den Erkenntnissen der vorherigen Studien ein Interventionsprogramm für den Schulsport entwickelt und evaluiert. Das Ziel war hierbei zu untersuchen, ob der Einsatz kooperativer Spiele zum einen das Erleben von Freude bei Schülerinnen und Schülern steigert und zum anderen zu einem stärkeren Gefühl von sozialer Eingebundenheit und wahrgenommener Kompetenz führt. Zur Untersuchung wurde ein Zwei-Gruppen Design mit Messwiederholung mit N = 285 Schülerinnen und Schülern verwendet. Hierfür wurde die Freude am Schulsport sowohl vor Beginn der Intervention als auch nach deren Beendigung untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten sowohl einen direkten Effekt kooperativer Spiele auf das Erleben von Freude als auch einen indirekten Effekt, der über das Gefühl sozialer Eingebundenheit und wahrgenommenes Kompetenzerleben im Schulsport vermittelt wird. Der systematische Einsatz von kooperativen Spielen im Schulsport bietet somit eine Möglichkeit bei Jugendlichen positives Sporterleben zu fördern. Auf diese Weise kann Schulsport Jugendliche anregen auch außerhalb der Schule sportlich aktiv zu sein und bei der Entwicklung eines aktiven Lebensstils unterstützen.
The timber shortage led to large scale afforestations on previously agriculturally used land in Central Europe during the 19th and 20th century. Widespread afforestation programs created recent forest ecosystems (i.e. young forest systems in terms of their development history). Despite the positive effect of increasing the forest area of Central Europe, the ecological effects of these land-use changes on forest ecosystems remain poorly understood. In order to increase the understanding of ecosystem processes in forests, an assessment of conceivable shifts in ecosystem functions caused by former land-use changes and forest management is required. By analysing aboveground growth rates of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in response to environmental change drivers, such as climate extremes and nitrogen (N) deposition, the presented thesis aims to assess the role of land-use and management legacies in modulating present responses to drivers of environmental change. To this end, annual radial growth rates of individual trees were measured in mature beech stands. The investigated stands differed either in their land-use history (i.e. ancient forest sites versus recent forests) or their forest management history (i.e. managed forest sites versus short-term and long-term unmanaged forest sites). Measurements of radial growth rates were complemented by analyses of the fine root systems, soil chemical properties and crown projection areas to gain insights into the mechanisms underlying alterations in tree growth. Within the projects of the presented thesis, shifts in the climate-growth relationships driven by land-use and management legacies were analysed. In addition, land-use legacy mediated differences in the climate-nitrogen-growth relationships were assessed. The key findings are: (I) Soil legacy driven alterations in the fine root systems cause a higher sensitivity of radial increment rates to water deficits in summer for trees growing on recent forest sites than for trees growing on ancient forest sites. (II) Management legacies (in terms of tree release) enhance the sensitivity of beech’s radial growth to water deficits in spring through changes in crown sizes. (III) Interacting effects of spring water deficits and co-occurring high deposition of reactive N compounds lead to stronger radial growth declines in trees growing in ancient forests. This is likely caused by resource allocation processes towards seed production, which is, in turn, mirrored by decreasing radial growth rates. In this context, high N deposition likely boosts mass fructification in beech trees. Overall, it has been demonstrated that the ecological continuity plays a crucial role in modulating both climate sensitivity and the growth response to interacting effects of water deficits and nitrogen deposition in beech trees. The presented thesis identified a trade-off between the climate sensitivity and maximised growth rates within beech trees, depending on forest history. The results show that the growth of beech in ancient, unmanaged beech forests is less sensitive to water deficits than in recent and managed beech forests. Additionally, interacting effects of spring water deficits and N deposition likely increase the reproductive effort of beech trees, particularly in ancient forests. Thus, the results of this thesis once again underpin the uniqueness of ancient, unmanaged beech forests, whose importance for the conservation of biodiversity has been widely acknowledged. In summary, the presented thesis highlights the need to consider the "ecological memory" of forest ecosystems when predicting responses to current and future environmental changes.
Increasingly, researchers are expected to work in collaborative interdisciplinary teams to tackle more complex and interrelated problems. However, the prospect of collaborating with others, from different disciplines, exerts countervailing forces on researchers. There is the lure of transcending the limitations of one's own knowledge, methods and conventions, belonging to diverse intellectual communities and tackling, together, ambitious research topics. On the other hand, there is the risk that collaborating across disciplinary boundaries will be taxing, confounding at times, with no guarantee of success. This thesis is about collaborative interdisciplinary research from the perspective of a formative accompanying researcher. The author accompanied an interdisciplinary research team in the field of sustainability over three years for the duration of a collaborative project. Formative accompanying research (FAR) is an approach to "research into research" that learns about, with and for a collaborative interdisciplinary team. The author found - through immersion in the literature, her own daily experiences of collaborating, and her observations – that interdisciplinary collaboration is very difficult. It requires a basic understanding and appreciation of other disciplines and methods, as well as the skills to integrate research inquiries and findings across diverse epistemologies. It also requires awareness that collaborative interdisciplinary research is more than an intellectual task of knowledge creation. Other factors matter, such as interpersonal relationships, power differentials, different research tempos and a sense of belonging. And these factors have an impact on processes and outcomes of collaborative knowledge creation. Knowing this implies a willingness to keep learning and to tolerate discomfort so as to cultivate deeper levels of collaborative capacity. The author discovered that in these deeper levels lie skills for staying with inevitable tensions, for talking and listening to generate new understanding together, and for applying a researcher's frank curiosity to oneself too. A formative accompanying researcher, who is part of the team she is researching, has to navigate delicate terrain. In this thesis, the author develops a FAR methodology that takes seriously the questions of positionality and relationality, and reflects on the experiences of putting these into practice. A FAR practice involves remaining in dynamic movement between observing and participating, between exercising curiosity and care, and between the researchers' own sense of impartiality and investment in relation to the issues at hand. There is merit in furthering the methodology and practice of FAR on its own terms. This includes attending to the skills required by a formative accompanying researcher to remain oriented within the concentric circles of research, relationship and loyalty that make up a collaborative team. There is also the question of how FAR, and other forms of research into research, can help to advance collaborative interdisciplinary research. The author argues for creating the conditions in research teams that would enable treating collaboration as a capacity to develop, and that would facilitate team members' receptivity to learning with FAR. Furthermore, she explores dilemmas of intervening as a formative accompanying researcher and of sustaining dynamic positionality over the long-term.
Decoding the psychological dimensions of human odor perception has long been a central issue of olfactory research. As odor percepts could not be linked to a few measurable physicochemical features of odorous compounds or physiological characteristics of the olfactory system, odor qualities have often been assessed by perception–based ratings. Although these approaches have been promising, none of the proposed system has sustained empirical validation. In a review of 28 studies, the authors assessed how basic characteristics of study design have been biasing perception–based classification systems: (1) interindividual differences in perceptual and verbal abilities of subjects, (2) stimuli characteristics, (3) approaches of data collection, and (4) methods of data analysis. Remarkably, many of the difficulties in establishing these systems have been rooted in one underlying issue: the puzzling relationship between language and olfaction in general. While the reference from odors to language is weak, the reverse impact of verbal processing on olfaction seems powerful. Odor perception is biased by verbal–semantic processes when cues of an odor's source are readily available from the context. At the same time, olfaction has been characterized as basically sensation driven when this information is absent. The authors examined whether language effects occur when verbal cues are absent and how expectations about an odor's identity shape odor evaluations. Subjects were asked to rate 20 unlabeled odor samples on perceptual dimensions as well as quality attributes and to eventually provide an odor source name. In a subsequent session, they performed the same rating tasks on a set of written odor labels that was compiled individually for each participant. It included both the 20 correct odor names (true labels) and – in any case of incorrect odor naming in the first session – the self–generated labels (identified labels). The authors compared odor ratings to ratings of both types of labels and found higher consistencies between the evaluation of an odor and its identified label than between the description of an odor and its true (yet not associated) label. These results indicate that basic perceptual as well as quality ratings are affected by semantic information about an odor's source – even in absence of source cues. That is, odor sensation may activate a semantic mental representation of an odorous object that affects odor processing and may in turn relate to further multimodal properties. That means, associations between odors and stimuli from other sensory modalities should not only be stable, but these mappings should be mediated by an odor’s identity. The authors asked subjects to visualize their odor associations on a drawing tablet, freely deciding on color and shape. Additionally, they provided a verbal label for each sample. Color mappings were odor-specific, they reflected the imagery of a natural source and seemed to change with assumed odor identity. Shape mappings changed with odor identifications as well, as drawings frequently displayed concrete objects that reflected visual features of an odor's source. The influence of verbal identity codes on quality ratings or crossmodal mappings is rooted in the very same problem that perception–based classification systems have tried to solve – a terminology that relates to abstract mental categories. The less specific we communicate, the more we need to resort to source–related analogies – in scientific endeavors and everyday life alike.
Neither market income nor consumption expenditure provides an adequate picture of individual standard of living. It is time which enables and restricts individual activities and is a further brick to a more comprehensive picture of individual wellbeing. In our study we focus on a prominent part of time use in non-market services: it is parental child care which contributes not only to individual but also to societal well-being. Within a novel approach we ask for multidimensional polarization effects of parental child care where compensation/ substitution of time for parental child care versus income is interdependently evaluated by panel estimates of societys subjective well-being. The new interdependent 2DGAP measure thereby provides multidimensional polarization intensity information for the poor and the rich and disentangles the single time and income contribution to subjective well-being ensuring at the same time the interdependence of the polarization dimensions. Socio-economic influences on the polarization pole risk and intensity will be quantified by two stage Heckman estimates. The analyses are based on the German Socio-Economic Panel with 21 waves and robust fixed effects estimates of subjective well-being as well as the German Time Use Surveys 1991/92 and actual 2012/13 with detailed diary time use data. The empirical results discover the interdependent relations between parental child care and income under a common evaluation frame and contribute to the question of dimension specific targeted policies in a multidimensional polarization approach. Prominent result: compensation between parental child care time and income proved to be significant, but there are multidimensional regions with no compensation, where parental child care time deficit is not compensated by income. Interdependent multidimensional polarization by headcount and intensity increased significantly over the twenty years under investigation with remarkable risk and intensity differences between the polarization poles with different disentangled parental child care time and income contributions to subjective well-being.